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Essential oils (EOs) are fragrant extracts obtained from various plants. Their composition varies depending on the plant species from which they are extracted. It is estimated that more than 200 compounds may be present in these oils. In recent years, essential oils have gained significant popularity in various industries, such as aromatherapy, food flavoring, and natural pharmacological treatments, due to their numerous uses, primary components, and respective properties. Consequently, several applications have been studied, including their antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidant properties
The main bioactive compounds of EOs are terpenes and terpenoids, which are responsible for the biological activities mentioned above (2). So, the properties of EOs contribute to the prevention of diseases through different mechanisms of action. In vitro studies are generally carried out, and it has been shown that the anti-inflammatory components of EOs inhibit free radicals that can generate mutations alone. In the DNA. Likewise, when there is prolonged oxidative stress, an excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can trigger chronic disorders such as metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and even cancer for the same reason that there are mutations in the DNA. EOs rich in polyphenols and their antioxidant properties act as therapeutic agents for these disease.s
Essential oils are used in healthcare to treat specific diseases or health conditions. They can be used to alleviate symptoms associated with conditions such as Alzheimer’s, cardiovascular diseases, sleep/stress disorders, and pain during childbirth Research has shown that rosemary essential oil has potential anticholinesterase inhibitory and antioxidant effects that may help protect the brain from chronic anticholinesterase diseases such as Alzheimer’s. However, more studies are needed to determine the adverse effects or benefits. Additionally, aromatherapy has been found to improve cognitive function in patients with such conditions
Antimicrobials are used for various purposes, including medical use as antiviral agents, immunomodulators, and antibiotics. They are also used as food preservatives due to their antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, which help counteract skin infections and, in addition to preventing food spoilage, are used to combat microorganisms that could be transmitted through food (4. According to Swamy et al. (6), lemon has antiviral properties against the influenza virus, while cinnamon is effective against enterobacteria.
Essential oils can affect bacteria differently, depending on their chemical components. Some oils can kill the bacteria (bactericidal action), while others can only slow their growth (bacteriostatic action). Essential oils can also affect cellular processes, such as nutrient processing, molecule synthesis, and regulation of biological processes between cells. Many plants with these characteristics are still being studied, and more findings are expected as they are widely used. These plants include cinnamon, thyme, rosemary, lemon, orange, cumin, and parsley . This systematic review identifies literature from the past 10 years to highlight their uses and effects on health, diet, microbiota, and mechanism of action.
The main chemical families are discussed below. Please note that the percentages listed against the oils are taken from Essential Oils in Colour (Caddy 1997), and are averages based on extensive historical data and the results of hundreds of GC reports (Gas Liquid Chromatography) which analyse the chemical make-up of an oil.
This is the largest chemical family found in essential oils. Monoterpenes are found in almost every essential oil and include limonene (citrus oils) and pinene (Pine/Fir/Juniperberry). They have a very small, light molecular structure, are extremely volatile (evaporate quickly), are free flowing (not viscous) and have a strong aroma. Oils with high levels of monoterpenes are usually top notes which is why they dissipate quickly. They are also more susceptible to oxidation – especially those with high levels of limonene, meaning they will have a shorter shelf life.
Common monoterpenes include: camphene, carene, cymene, limonene, myrcene, phellandrene, pinene, sabinene, terpinene.
Common properties of monoterpenes: Antibacterial, antiseptic, antiviral, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, decongestant, rubefacient, stimulant.
Examples of oils rich in monoterpenes: Black Pepper (60%), Grapefruit (۹۶%), Cypress (75%), Juniperberry (80%), Lemon (87%), Lime (72%), Mandarin (90%), Nutmeg (۷۵%), Orange Bitter (90%), Orange Sweet (85%), Pine (70%), Silver Fir (90%).
Safety: can be irritating to the skin, especially if oxidised.
Sesquiterpenes are less common in essential oils. Their molecules are bigger and heavier making them slightly more stable than monoterpenes. This means they take longer to evaporate and have a longer shelf-life. Many oils with high levels of sesquiterpenes are derived from roots and woods or plants from the Asteraceae family and have grounding, balancing effects.
Common sesquiterpenes include: bisabolene, cadinene, caryophyllene, cedrene, chamazulene, copaene, elemene, farnesene, germacrene D, himachelene, zingiberene.
Common properties of sesquiterpenes: Antibacterial, antiseptic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, balancing, calming, cicatrizant (skin/wound healing, cell regenerative).
Examples of oils rich in sesquiterpenes: Cade (۶۰%), Cedarwood Virginian (60%), Cedarwood Atlas (50%), German Chamomile (35%), Ginger (55%), Helichrysum (40%), Myrrh (39%), Patchouli (50%), Yarrow (۴۵%), Vetivert (65%), Ylang Ylang (40%).
Plant alcohols are either derived from monoterpenes (monoterpenols). Or to a lesser extent, sesquiterpenes (sesquiterpenols). Alcohols are common in most essential oils and are the most useful molecules in aromatherapy. They are powerful yet gentle, usually quite fluid, with pleasant aromas that are well tolerated. They generally used for their antiseptic and pain-relieving properties (physical and emotional).
Common monoterpenols include: borneol, citronellol, geraniol, lavandulol, linalool, terpineol, terpinen-4-ol, menthol, nerol.
Common sesquiterpenols include: bisabolol, cedrol, farnesol, nerolidol, santalol, zingiberol.
Common properties of alcohols: antiviral, antiseptic, anti-infective, stimulating.
Examples of oils rich in alcohols: Basil (50%), Catnip (62%), Cedarwood (30%), Coriander (70%), Geranium 63%), Lavandin (45%), Lavender (36%), Sweet Marjoram (50%), Cornmint (۷۰%), Peppermint (42%), Myrrh (40%), Neroli (40%), Palmarosa (۸۵%), Rose Otto (60%), Rosewood (90%), Sandalwood (80%), Tea Tree (45%), Vetivert (40%).
Phenols are the strongest, most irritating compounds and are slow to evaporate (giving them more opportunity to penetrate the tissues). They are very chemically active with a distinct aroma (which reminds me a bit of petrol). Phenols tend to have powerful bactericidal properties and a strongly stimulating effect.
Common phenols include: anethole, carvacrol, chavicol, estragole (methyl chavicol), eugenol, thymol.
Common properties of phenols: antibacterial, antiseptic, antimicrobial, antiviral, immuno-stimulant, mind stimulant, rubefacient.
Examples of oils rich in phenols: Basil ct Methyl Chavicol (۹۰%), Cinnamon Leaf (86%), Clove Bud (90%), Fennel (62%), Oregano (70%), Tarragon (70%), Thyme ct Thymol (۴۰%).
Safety: Oils rich in phenols are irritating to the skin and mucous membranes. Only use in low dilution and for short periods of time. Always blend with alcohol-rich oils. Avoid during pregnancy.
Aldehydes are the most recognizable component, as they have a potent citrus-like scent which is a key contributor to an oil’s overall aroma. They are quite unstable and are susceptible to oxidation.
Common aldehydes include: cinnamaldehyde, citral, citronellal, geranial, neral.
Common properties of aldehydes: Anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antiviral calming/sedative yet uplifting.
Examples of oils rich in aldehydes: Citronella, Lemon Eucalyptus (۸۰%), Lemongrass (80%), May Chang, Melissa (50%).
Safety: Oils high in aldehydes should be used in low dilution (1%) as they can be irritating to skin and mucous membranes.
Some of the most common toxic compounds are ketones (e.g. thujone, pulegone), and this is why oils such as Thuga and Pennyroyal are avoided in aromatherapy. Not all ketones are toxic however, and some have great therapeutic benefits particularly in relation to the upper respiratory system, for easing congestion and aiding the flow of mucus. Ketones are distinctive in their fragrance and often share a potent, minty-camphoraceous odour. They are highly penetrating and should be used with care.
Common ketones include: Camphor, carvone, fenchone, jasmone, menthone, pincocamphone.
Common properties of ketones: Cicatrisant, decongestant, expectorant, lipolytic (breaks down fat), mucolytic, sedative (some).
Examples of oils rich in ketones: Caraway (54%), Dill (50%), Eucalyptus dives (۴۵%), Hyssop (46%), Spearmint (55%), Rosemary (25%), Sage (35%), Tagetes (۵۰%),
Safety: Should be used with care as they can build up in the body. Note contraindications for each individual oil and take particular care during pregnancy.
Esters are probably the most widespread group found in essential oils – there are not many oils that don’t have an ester content. They have an intensely fruity aroma and are generally non-toxic and gentle in action, making them ideal for use with the young, old or infirm. Esters are a go-to component – they have so many therapeutic benefits but are especially good for relaxation and balancing the mood.
Common esters include: benzyl benzoate, bornyl acetate, geranyl acetate, linalyl acetate, methyl salicylate (main component in Deep Heat).
Common properties of esters: antifungal, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, calming (for physical body and nervous system), cicatrisant, sedative.
Examples of oils rich in esters: Benzoin (70%), Bergamot (40%), Sweet Birch (۹۹%), Roman Chamomile (75%), Clary Sage (70%), Helichrysum (۴۰%), Jasmine (54%), Lavender (45%), Bergamot Mint (60%), Petitgrain (55%), Sweet Thyme (40%), Wintergreen (99%).
Safety: Sweet Birch and Wintergreen contain high levels of methyl salicylate which is thought to be more powerful than aspirin. Both oils have serious safety considerations and should be used with extreme care.
Oxides have the strongest aromas of all the molecules and are my favourite components – being bracing and breathing! The most common oxide is 1,8-cineole, also called eucalyptol. Found in most varieties of Eucalyptus oil and other camphoraceous oils such as Rosemary, Tea Tree and Cajeput, cineole is in a class of its own, with its potent expectorant properties and distinctive scent. Oxides are drying molecules that remove damp from an area, making them a perfect choice for respiratory issues.
Common oxides include: bisabolol oxide, caryophyllene oxide, 1,8-cineole, linalool oxide, pinene oxide, rose oxide.
Common properties of oxides: Anti-inflammatory, cooling, bronchiodilator, decongestant, expectorant, mucolytic.
Examples of oils rich in oxides: German Chamomile (35%), Eucalyptus smithii (۷۸%), Lavender Spike (34%), Wild Marjoram (55%), Niaouli (۶۰%), Ravensara (60%), Rosemary (30%).
Safety: Cineole can be irritating to skin and mucous membranes.
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